Fundamental Lease Structures in Commercial Real Estate

Commercial leases are financial frameworks that allocate operating costs (taxes, insurance, maintenance/utilities, management) between landlord and tenant. The primary families are:

• Gross (Full-Service)

• Modified Gross / Modified Net

• Net (Single-Net, Double-Net, Triple-Net/NNN)

• Percentage Leases (base rent + revenue share, common in retail)

The core distinction is expense allocation: gross concentrates cost risk with the landlord; net pushes it to the tenant to varying degrees. That allocation directly influences cash flow volatility, NOI predictability, admin complexity, and valuation (cap rate).

Lease Types with Practical Pros & Cons

Gross (Full-Service) Lease

Tenant pays a fixed, all-inclusive rent; landlord covers most operating expenses (taxes, insurance, utilities for common areas, maintenance, management).

Pros (typically for tenants):

• Budget certainty; one payment covers occupancy.

• Minimal operational distraction—focus remains on running the business.

Cons (for landlords):

• Increased exposure to expense inflation and capital surprises.

• Requires precise pricing with risk premium and adequate reserves.

• Potential tenant pushback on rent increases (limited transparency on cost drivers).

Strategic notes (landlords):

• Employ CPI/fixed escalations, expense stops, or base-year structures to mitigate inflation mismatch.

• Expect higher headline rent than net structures to cover embedded costs and risk.

Modified Gross / Modified Net Lease

This structure is a hybrid between gross and net. Tenant pays base rent plus a negotiated share of certain operating costs (e.g., in-suite utilities/janitorial), while the landlord typically remains responsible for common-area operations and often taxes/insurance—or these may be shared depending on the deal.

Pros:

• Balanced risk allocation; some tenant skin-in-the-game lowers landlord volatility.

• Often simpler than full net administration while reducing landlord OpEx exposure.

Cons:

• Landlord loses some control over in-suite standards/timelines for minor repairs.

• Requires clear schedules defining who pays what to avoid disputes.

Strategic notes:

• Precisely document which cost buckets are tenant vs. landlord; align with expense stops or base-year language for clarity.

Net Leases (N, NN, NNN)

Single-Net (N)

Tenant pays: Base rent + property taxes.
Landlord pays: Insurance, maintenance/repairs, and typically common-area utilities/management.

Double-Net (NN)

Tenant pays: Base rent + property taxes & insurance (often pro-rata in multi-tenant).
Landlord pays: Maintenance/repairs/common areas.

Triple-Net (NNN)

Tenant pays: Base rent + taxes, insurance, and CAM (common-area maintenance) on a pro-rata basis.
Landlord role: More passive; income behaves like a bond stream with lower OpEx volatility.

Pros (particularly NNN):

• Predictable NOI; inflation protection as expenses pass through.

• Lower day-to-day management burden; scalable across portfolios.

• Attractive to institutional investors; often tighter cap rates.

Cons (particularly NNN):

• Reduced landlord control over in-suite works; quality oversight requires lease standards and audit rights.

• Higher admin precision needed (budgeting, monthly estimates, annual reconciliations, audit response).

Read more about triple net leases here.

Strategic notes:

• CAM categories and allocation formulas must be explicit (landscaping, parking, security, utilities, janitorial for shared areas, management fees, etc.).

• Consider controllable vs. uncontrollable caps (e.g., 3–7% on controllables), gross-up for partial occupancy, and audit rights language.

Percentage Lease (Retail Focus)

Tenant pays base rent plus a percentage of gross sales above an agreed breakpoint (often the “natural breakpoint”: base rent ÷ percentage). This aligns incentives, especially in high-traffic retail. 

Pros:

• Aligns landlord–tenant interests; landlords participate in upside.

• Offers tenants cost flexibility in soft trading periods.

Cons:

• Higher administrative load: monthly sales reporting, definitions of “gross sales,” confidentiality, and annual true-ups.

• Revenue volatility for landlords tied to tenant performance.

Strategic notes:

• Define inclusions/exclusions (returns, taxes, online sales, employee discounts) with precision.

• Maintain audit rights and standardized reporting linked to POS records.

Operating Expenses/CAM/Service Charges and Reconciliation

These expenses includes shared-area costs (landscaping, parking/snow, exterior lighting/security, shared utilities/HVAC, janitorial, waste/pest, property management, portions of insurance).

Typically they are all allocated by rentable square footage but some costs are tailored to benefit (e.g., elevator costs to upper floors; parking by spaces).

These costs are billed monthly on estimates, then reconciled annually within 90–120 days after year end with support schedules.

Controls & protections around these cost are needed. Here are some that are used commonly:

• Controllable caps (exclude taxes/insurance/utilities).

• Base-year/expense stops to limit landlord exposure in hybrids.

• Gross-up for variable expenses in partially occupied buildings.

• Tenant audit rights with clear timeframes and thresholds.

Read more about Operating Expenses/CAM/Service Charges here.

Financial Modelling, NOI, and Valuation

NOI (Net Operating Income) equals gross operating income minus operating expenses and underpins valuation and lending. Here is how the different structures might impace NOI:

• Gross leases: Higher headline rent; landlord absorbs OpEx swings → greater NOI volatility.

• NNN: Lower base rent + reimbursements; NOI more stable as OpEx rises are passed through.

• Valuation: Investors typically price stability—NNN assets may trade at tighter cap rates than comparable gross-leased assets, all else equal.

• Modified gross/base-year/expense-stop: Hybrid NOI patterns that require careful assumptions on inflation, stops, and escalation timing.

Investors often price income stability. More predictable NOI can compress cap rates. For market perspective, see NCREIF NPI and CBRE Cap Rate Survey.

Read more about Net Operating Income (NOI) here.

Regional and Legal Considerations (Brief)

• US vs. UK/Commonwealth: UK “service charges” and FRI (Full Repairing & Insuring) leases resemble NNN but within different legal frameworks and professional standards (e.g., RICS service charge guidance).

• ANZ/EU: Measurement standards (BOMA, IPMS) influence pro-rata shares; VAT/GST regimes affect billing and disclosure.

• Always align lease language with local laws on disclosures, sales confidentiality (retail), and accounting/reporting standards (GAAP/IFRS).

Administration Technology & Best Practices

• Use lease administration/accounting systems that handle: escalations, CAM coding, gross-ups, percentage rent, pro-rata allocations, audit trails, and reporting.

• Track critical dates (renewals, options, rent reviews) and escalation triggers.

• Standardize data fields (base rent/escalation method, expense stops/base-year, breakpoint/percentage, audit rights) and automate reconciliations with exception workflows.

• Maintain documentation rigor to support tenant audits and reduce dispute risk.

Choosing the Right Structure: Practical Guidance

• For stable, low-touch income: Favor NNN with strong tenants; set clear standards for works/maintenance and robust reporting rights.

• For tenant simplicity or competitive leasing in certain markets: Consider gross with escalations, expense stops, or base-year to temper volatility.

• For balanced risk and simpler ops than full NNN: Modified gross/modified net with explicit cost splits.

• For retail/variable sales environments: Percentage leases with tight sales definitions and audit mechanics.